Relative clauses identify a noun or add information about it: which person, thing or place we mean. In English the clause comes after the noun and begins with who, which, that: the man who came yesterday. In Uzbek the same meaning is usually expressed by a participle placed before the noun (kecha kelgan odam), so learners often get the structure wrong. Exams test choosing the pronoun, using commas and joining two sentences into one; in Writing, relative clauses count towards the range of complex structures.
§1. Relative pronouns and adverbs
A relative word does two jobs: it links the clauses and it is itself a part of the relative clause (its subject, object or adverbial).
who — people · which — things and animals · that — people or things (defining clauses only)
whose — possession · whom — a person as object (formal)
where — place · when — time · why — reason (the reason why)
The woman who lives next door is a doctor.
The book which/that I bought is interesting.
That’s the girl whose brother is a pilot.
This is the house where I was born.
I remember the day when we met.
That’s the reason why I left.
whose is used for people and for things: a country whose capital is Tashkent.
§2. Defining relative clauses
A defining clause gives essential information: it tells us exactly which one we mean. Without it the sentence is incomplete or unclear. No commas.
Students who study hard pass the exam. (not all students, only those who study hard)
The bus that goes to the airport leaves from here.
When the relative pronoun is the object of the clause, it can be left out; when it is the subject, it cannot:
The film (that) we watched was boring. — we is the subject, that the object → can be omitted
The man who called you is here. — who is the subject → cannot be omitted
The test: if a verb comes straight after the pronoun, the pronoun is the subject, so keep it; if a noun or pronoun (I, we, the teacher) follows, the pronoun is the object and can be dropped.
Because the relative pronoun is already the object, do not add another one (it, him): ✗ The book which I read it → ✓ The book which I read.
Worked example
The phone ___ I bought last week has already broken.
The noun being defined, phone, is a thing, so which or that.
After the gap comes I, the subject of the clause.
So the pronoun is the object and may also be omitted.
There are no commas, so it is a defining clause and that is possible.
Answer: which / that (or no pronoun).
§3. Non-defining relative clauses
A non-defining clause adds extra information; the sentence is complete without it. It usually follows names, unique things or clearly identified people such as my mother.
Non-defining clause: separated by commas, no that, the pronoun is never omitted.
Tashkent, which is the capital of Uzbekistan, is a large modern city.
My father, who is 60, still works.
Alisher Navoi, whose poems are known worldwide, was born in Herat.
which can refer to the whole previous clause: He passed the exam, which surprised everyone. (the fact that he passed surprised everyone).
The difference in meaning:
My sister who lives in London is a nurse. — I have several sisters; the one in London is a nurse.
My sister, who lives in London, is a nurse. — I have one sister, and she lives in London.
Worked example
Join: Samarkand attracts many tourists. It is over 2,700 years old.
Samarkand is a proper noun, a unique city, and the information is extra → non-defining clause.
For a thing (a city) use which; that is impossible in a non-defining clause.
Replace It with which and place the clause right after the noun.
Separate the clause with commas on both sides.
Answer: Samarkand, which is over 2,700 years old, attracts many tourists.
§4. Prepositions, whom and quantity expressions
If the verb in the clause needs a preposition, the preposition can go in two places:
At the end (informal, spoken): The person I spoke to was very kind.
Before the pronoun (formal, written): The person to whom I spoke was very kind.
After a preposition use only whom (people) and which (things): ✗ to who, ✗ in that.
With quantity expressions (in non-defining clauses): some of whom, most of which, all of whom, none of which, both of whom.
He has three cars, two of which are electric.
I invited twenty friends, most of whom came.
where and when can be replaced by a preposition + which: the house where I was born = the house in which I was born.
Worked example
I have two brothers. Both of them are engineers. Join them into one sentence.
The second sentence adds extra information about brothers → non-defining clause.
them refers to people and follows the preposition of → whom.
Quantity expression: both of whom.
Answer: I have two brothers, both of whom are engineers.
§5. Reduced relative clauses
In formal and written English relative clauses are often shortened:
Active meaning — V-ing: The man standing at the door is my uncle. (= who is standing) People living in cities breathe polluted air. (= who live)
Passive meaning — V3: The houses built in the 1960s are old. (= which were built) Goods made in Uzbekistan (= which are made)
the first/last/only/next + to V: She was the first woman to fly into space.He was the last to leave.
Active → V-ing · Passive → V3 · the first/last/only → to V
§6. An exam routine
Who or what is being defined: a person → who, a thing → which, a place → where, a time → when, possession → whose.
Are there commas, or is the information extra? → non-defining: no that, never omit the pronoun.
Does a verb (subject) or a noun/pronoun (object) follow the pronoun? If it is the object in a defining clause, it may be omitted.
Is there a preposition before the pronoun? → whom or which.
Check that there is no extra it/him/them in the clause.
Check yourself
The man ___ car was stolen called the police.
This is the café ___ we first met.
Samarkand, ___ is over 2,700 years old, attracts many tourists.
In which sentence can the pronoun be omitted: (a) The boy who won the prize is my cousin. (b) The boy who I met is my cousin.
The students ___ (invite) to the conference were excited.
I have two brothers, both of ___ are engineers.
He passed all his exams, ___ made his parents very happy.
She was the only student ___ (answer) the last question.
Common mistakes
that in a non-defining clause: ✗ Tashkent, that is… → ✓ Tashkent, which is….
An extra pronoun: ✗ The book which I read it → ✓ The book which I read.
which for people: ✗ the teacher which → ✓ the teacher who.
Confusing whose (possession) with who’s (who is).
Leaving out the commas of a non-defining clause, which changes the meaning.
who or that after a preposition: ✗ the person to who → ✓ the person to whom.