In the second half of the 19th century the Russian Empire conquered Central Asia. Feuds between the khanates, internal instability and military and technical backwardness made the conquest easier. As a result the region remained a colony for more than half a century: political independence was lost and the economy was geared to supplying raw cotton, yet railways, new technology and reform movements such as Jadidism also appeared. Exams ask about the stages and dates of conquest, treaties, the colonial system of government and popular resistance.
§1. Causes of the conquest and the situation beforehand
Causes on the Russian side:
Russia’s growing industry needed raw materials (above all cotton) and markets for its goods.
The American Civil War (1861–1865) cut off supplies of American cotton and deepened Russia’s cotton shortage.
Rivalry with Britain over Central Asia — known as the “Great Game”. Britain, holding India, wanted to push its sphere of influence northwards.
After defeat in the Crimean War (1853–1856) Russia sought to restore its prestige in the East.
Causes on the regional side:
The three states — the Emirate of Bukhara and the Khanates of Khiva and Kokand — fought one another and could not organise a common defence.
Inside the khanates, struggles for the throne and tribal feuds continued.
Their armies used outdated weapons; there was almost no regular army or modern artillery.
Stages of conquest: Kokand (1850s–1860s) → Bukhara (1866–1868) → Khiva (1873) → abolition of Kokand (1876)
§2. The Khanate of Kokand and the capture of Tashkent
From the 1850s Kokand’s forts on the Syr Darya were taken: Ak-Mechet (1853), then Aulie-Ata, Turkestan and Chimkent (1864).
Tashkent was the largest trading city in Central Asia; taking it opened the way to the whole region.
In spring 1865 the Kokand commander Alimqul, who led the defence, was mortally wounded in battle near Tashkent.
1865 — General M. G. Chernyaev took Tashkent
1867 — the Governor-Generalship of Turkestan was created with its centre in Tashkent; the first governor-general was K. P. von Kaufman
Kaufman had vast powers — locals called him the “half-tsar” — including the right to declare war on and make peace with neighbouring states.
In 1873–1876 Kokand saw a revolt led by Pulat Khan against the khan and the Russians. Using it as a pretext, Russia abolished the khanate and created the Fergana Oblast in its place (1876; first military governor M. D. Skobelev).
§3. The subjugation of the Emirate of Bukhara
1866 — at the Battle of Irjar the emir’s army was defeated; Khujand, Ura-Tyube and Jizzakh were lost.
1868 — Samarkand was taken; on the Zirabulak heights the emir’s army was defeated again
When Kaufman left Samarkand with his main force, the townspeople together with the begs of Shahrisabz besieged the Russian garrison; the siege was lifted only when Kaufman returned.
Under the 1868 treaty the emirate ceded Samarkand and Kattakurgan, paid an indemnity and became a Russian protectorate (vassal). The Zarafshan District was formed on the conquered lands.
A protectorate is a state that formally survives (the emir stays on the throne) while its foreign policy is controlled by Russia; Russian merchants gain free trade and privileges.
§4. The subjugation of the Khanate of Khiva
Khiva was surrounded by desert, so the campaign was carefully prepared: in 1873 troops set out from four directions (Tashkent, Orenburg, Krasnovodsk and Mangyshlak).
In May 1873 Khiva surrendered almost without a fight; Khan Muhammad Rahim Khan II (Feruz) fled and later returned.
1873 — the Treaty of Gandimiyan: the khanate became dependent on Russia, the right bank of the Amu Darya passed to Russia and a large indemnity was imposed
The khan lost the right to an independent foreign policy, and slavery was abolished in the khanate.
Thus of the three states one was abolished and two — Bukhara and Khiva — survived as protectorates until 1920.
§5. The colonial system of government
Military-administrative system: governor-general → oblast (military governor) → uezd (district chief) → volost (headman elected from the local population) → village (aksakal, or elder).
Senior posts went only to Russian officers; the lower tier (volost headman, elder, qazi judge) was local but supervised by the administration.
In 1886 the Statute on the Administration of the Turkestan Region consolidated the system.
Courts: imperial courts for Russians, courts of qazis and biys for local people (under supervision).
Cities were split into an “old city” (local population) and a “new city” for Russians, with wide streets and government buildings.
§6. Economic policy and popular resistance
Turkestan became the raw-cotton base of Russia’s textile industry; American cotton varieties were sown, grain fields shrank and the region had to import bread.
Railways: the Trans-Caspian line reached Samarkand in 1888 and Tashkent in 1899; the Orenburg–Tashkent line was finished in 1906.
Resettlement policy: Russian peasants were settled on fertile land.
Popular unrest: the “cholera riot” in Tashkent (1892), the Andijan uprising (1898, led by Dukchi Ishan) and later the 1916 revolt.
Consequence: colonial oppression showed society that change was needed — at the turn of the 20th century the Jadid movement emerged.
Worked example
“Put in chronological order: the Treaty of Gandimiyan; the capture of Tashkent; the abolition of the Khanate of Kokand; the capture of Samarkand.”
Tashkent — 1865.
Samarkand — 1868.
Treaty of Gandimiyan — 1873.
Abolition of Kokand — 1876.
Answer: Tashkent → Samarkand → Gandimiyan → abolition of Kokand.
Worked example
Source analysis: “The khan acknowledges himself the obedient servant of the Emperor of All Russia. He renounces the right to maintain direct relations with other states and to conclude treaties... The lands on the right bank of the Amu Darya pass to Russia.” What document is this?
The word “khan” appears, so this is not the Emirate of Bukhara.
Handing over the right bank of the Amu Darya is a condition specific to Khiva.
Renouncing foreign relations is the mark of a protectorate (dependency).
Answer: the Treaty of Gandimiyan, 1873.
Worked example
Cause and effect: “How did the American Civil War affect the conquest of Central Asia?”
In 1861–1865 supplies of American cotton to Europe and Russia fell sharply.
Russian textile mills risked running out of raw material.
The need to seize Central Asian land suited to cotton grew; Tashkent was taken in 1865.
Answer: the cotton shortage sped up the conquest and later turned the region into a raw-cotton base.
Check yourself
In what year was the Governor-Generalship of Turkestan created?
Which general took Tashkent?
Which khanate was abolished altogether?
With which state was the Treaty of Gandimiyan signed?
Which Kokand commander died defending Tashkent?
In what year was the Orenburg–Tashkent railway completed?
What was the administrative unit within an uezd whose head was elected from local people?
In what year was Samarkand taken?
Common mistakes
Calling Kokand a protectorate: Bukhara and Khiva were protectorates, Kokand was abolished.
Dating the Governor-Generalship of Turkestan to 1865 (1865 — Tashkent taken; 1867 — governor-generalship).
Confusing Irjar and Gandimiyan: Irjar was a battle with Bukhara (1866), Gandimiyan a treaty with Khiva (1873).
Saying Kaufman took Tashkent (it was Chernyaev).
Confusing the Trans-Caspian railway with the Orenburg–Tashkent line.