In the 10th–12th centuries three great Turkic dynasties ruled Central Asia and its neighbours — the Karakhanids, the Ghaznavids and the Seljuks. In this era Turkic dynasties became political leaders of the Islamic world, Turkic became the language of major literary works for the first time (“Kutadgu Bilig”, “Diwan Lughat al-Turk”) and the ethnic formation of the Uzbek people was essentially completed. Yet the dynasties’ rivalry left Transoxiana dependent on the Qara-Khitai. Exams ask about the dynasties’ dates, decisive battles, rulers and the great works of the period.
§1. The rise of the Karakhanid state
The Karakhanids were a Turkic state formed in the mid-9th century in Semirechye and Kashgar (based on the Karluk, Chigil and Yaghma tribes); it lasted until 1212.
Satuq Bughra Khan was the first Karakhanid khan to accept Islam (mid-10th century). In 960 many Turkic tribes converted — the Karakhanids became one of the first Turkic Muslim states.
At the end of the 10th century the Karakhanids attacked the weakened Samanid state.
999 — the Karakhanids (Nasr ibn Ali) took Bukhara and the Samanid state fell
Cause and effect: internal feuds in the Samanid state and the rise of the military elite → a weak central government → the Karakhanids took Transoxiana almost without a fight, with the local clergy on their side.
§2. Karakhanid government and economy
A dual-khagan system: the state was split into two parts, each ruled by its own khagan — a tradition inherited from Turkic nomadic statehood.
Capitals: Balasagun and Kashgar; the centre in Transoxiana was Samarkand.
Mid-11th century — the state split into the Eastern (centre Balasagun, later Kashgar) and Western (centre Samarkand) khaganates
The iqta system developed: land and the right to collect its tax were granted for service. The holder was an iqtadar.
Crafts and trade flourished, and Silk Road links with China grew stronger.
Western Karakhanid rulers were builders: under Shams al-Mulk the Rabat-i Malik caravanserai was built; under Arslan Khan the Kalyan Minaret rose in Bukhara (1127).
From 1141 the Karakhanids were vassals of the Qara-Khitai; in 1212 they were abolished by Khwarezmshah Muhammad.
§3. Culture: the first great works in Turkic
Yusuf Khass Hajib — “Kutadgu Bilig” (“Wisdom that Brings Happiness”, 1069–1070), the first major didactic poem in Turkic
Through dialogues among four symbolic figures — Kuntogdi (justice), Aytoldi (fortune, the state), Ogdulmish (intellect) and Odgurmish (contentment) — the work teaches a ruler how to govern.
Mahmud al-Kashgari — “Diwan Lughat al-Turk” (1072–1074), a dictionary and encyclopaedia of the Turkic languages with a world map
It was written in Baghdad to teach Arabs Turkic and contains information on Turkic tribes, their languages, proverbs, poems and customs.
Ahmad Yugnaki — “Hibat al-Haqayiq”; Ahmad Yasawi — the “Hikmats” (12th century).
These works show Turkic becoming a language of state, learning and literature.
§4. The Ghaznavids
The founder was Sebuktegin, a Turkic slave-soldier (ghulam) commander who rose in Samanid service (Ghazni, in today’s Afghanistan).
Mahmud of Ghazni (998–1030) was the dynasty’s most powerful ruler: he raided India many times for rich plunder and took Khurasan and part of Iran.
1017 — Mahmud of Ghazni conquered Khwarezm and carried the scholars of the Ma’mun Academy, including Biruni, off to Ghazni
At his court the poet Ferdowsi completed the “Shahnameh”, and Biruni wrote “India”.
Under Mahmud’s son Mas’ud the Ghaznavids were defeated by the Seljuks and lost their western lands.
§5. The Seljuks
The Seljuks were Oghuz Turks, first on the lower Syr Darya and then in Khurasan.
1040 — the Battle of Dandanaqan: the Seljuks (Tughril Beg and Chaghri Beg) defeated the Ghaznavid Mas’ud
The Seljuks built a vast empire from Iran, Iraq and the Caucasus to Asia Minor; in 1055 they took Baghdad and received the title “sultan” from the caliph.
The reign of Sultan Malik Shah and his vizier Nizam al-Mulk (the “Siyasatnama”, the Nizamiyya madrasas) was the empire’s peak.
Sultan Sanjar (centred on Merv) was the last powerful ruler of the eastern Seljuks.
1141 — the Battle of Qatwan (near Samarkand): Sanjar was defeated by the Qara-Khitai; Transoxiana became their vassal
After the Seljuks declined, their former governors — the Khwarezmshahs — grew strong.
§6. The overall significance of the era
Having adopted Islam, Turkic dynasties became political leaders of the Islamic world.
Settled and nomadic traditions merged: the dual-khagan system, the iqta, the Turkic tribal nobility and Perso-Islamic administrative practice.
Turkic took shape as a literary language; the ethnic formation of the Uzbek people is considered to have been essentially completed in this period.
Wars between the dynasties (Dandanaqan, Qatwan) weakened the region and opened the way first for the Qara-Khitai and later the Mongols.
999 (Bukhara) → 1017 (Khwarezm under the Ghaznavids) → 1040 (Dandanaqan) → 1141 (Qatwan) → 1212 (end of the Karakhanids)
§7. The Qara-Khitai and the end of the era
The Qara-Khitai were Khitan tribes driven out of northern China; early in the 12th century they moved west and founded a state in Semirechye, centred on Balasagun.
After their victory at Qatwan in 1141, Transoxiana and Khwarezm paid them tribute, but local rulers (the Karakhanids and Khwarezmshahs) stayed in place.
The Qara-Khitai did not adopt Islam and interfered little in religion, but their heavy taxes caused resentment.
At the turn of the 13th century Khwarezmshah Muhammad turned against them; he defeated them in 1210 and in 1212 ended the last Karakhanid ruler in Samarkand.
Transoxiana thus became part of the Khwarezmshah state — the start of the next period (the Khwarezmshahs and the Mongol invasion).
1141 (vassalage to the Qara-Khitai) → 1210 (the Khwarezmshah defeats them) → 1212 (end of the Karakhanids)
Worked example
Chronology: “Match: 1) Dandanaqan; 2) Qatwan; 3) the capture of Bukhara; 4) Kutadgu Bilig. a) 999; b) 1040; c) 1141; d) 1069–1070.”
Battle of Dandanaqan — 1040: 1–b.
Battle of Qatwan — 1141: 2–c.
The Karakhanids took Bukhara — 999: 3–a.
“Kutadgu Bilig” — 1069–1070: 4–d.
Answer: 1–b, 2–c, 3–a, 4–d.
Worked example
Source analysis: “I travelled through the lands of the Turks and studied their dialects and verses... I wrote this book so that Arabs might learn the Turkic language” (paraphrasing a work’s preface). What is the work, and who wrote it?
Collecting Turkic dialects and verse, aiming to teach Arabs Turkic — a dictionary-encyclopaedia.
Such a work was written in 11th-century Baghdad.
It is the “Diwan Lughat al-Turk” by Mahmud al-Kashgari (1072–1074).
Answer: Mahmud al-Kashgari, “Diwan Lughat al-Turk”.
Worked example
Cause and effect: “What were the consequences of the Battle of Dandanaqan?”
In 1040 the Seljuks defeated the Ghaznavid Mas’ud.
The Ghaznavids lost Khurasan and their western lands and were reduced mainly to Afghanistan and India.
The Seljuks moved west, took Baghdad in 1055 and built a huge empire.
Answer: the Ghaznavids weakened and the rise of the Seljuk Empire began.
Check yourself
Who wrote “Kutadgu Bilig”?
In what year was the Battle of Dandanaqan?
Who carried Biruni off to Ghazni?
What was land granted for service, with the right to collect its tax, called?
By whom was Sanjar defeated at Qatwan?
Who was the first Karakhanid khan to accept Islam?
In what year did the Karakhanids take Bukhara?
In what year was the Kalyan Minaret in Bukhara built?
Common mistakes
Attributing “Kutadgu Bilig” to Mahmud al-Kashgari (its author is Yusuf Khass Hajib).
Confusing Dandanaqan and Qatwan: Dandanaqan — Seljuks against Ghaznavids (1040); Qatwan — Sanjar against the Qara-Khitai (1141).
Placing the Ghaznavid centre in Transoxiana (it was Ghazni).
Saying the Seljuks destroyed the Samanids (the Karakhanids did, in 999).
Calling the Seljuks Kipchaks (they were Oghuz Turks).