The 6th to 2nd centuries BC cover two major stages in Central Asian history: first the region becomes part of the Achaemenid (Persian) Empire, then come the campaign of Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic age. The topic matters for understanding how the peoples of Central Asia resisted foreign conquerors (Tomyris, Shiraq, Spitamenes), the earliest written sources (the Behistun inscription, Herodotus, Arrian) and the blending of cultures. Exams often ask you to order dates, match heroes to events and analyse a passage from a source.
§1. The rise of the Achaemenid Empire and Central Asia
In the mid-6th century BC Cyrus II united the Iranian tribes. He conquered Media, Lydia and Babylon, creating the largest empire of its day. His eastern campaigns brought Bactria, Sogdiana, Khwarezm (Chorasmia) and Parthia into the empire.
550 BC — Cyrus II founded the Achaemenid Empire
530 BC — Cyrus II was killed campaigning against the Massagetae
Tomyris was queen of the Massagetae. According to Herodotus, Cyrus captured her son Spargapises by a trick; in the decisive battle the Persian army was destroyed and Cyrus himself was killed.
Shiraq was a Saka shepherd. According to legend (recorded by the Greek writer Polyaenus), he deliberately led the army of Darius I into a waterless desert, saving his people at the cost of his own life.
Both stories are studied as early examples of the patriotic tradition of Central Asian peoples.
§2. The reforms of Darius I and the satrapies
Darius I (522–486 BC) carried out wide-ranging reforms to strengthen the empire.
The empire was divided into satrapies (provinces). A satrap was a governor who collected taxes, judged cases and kept order. A separate military commander was appointed and kept watch on the satrap.
Each province paid a fixed tax in silver. According to Herodotus, Parthia, Khwarezm, Sogdiana and Aria together formed one satrapy, while Bactria was a separate one.
A gold coin, the daric, was minted and a uniform system of measures introduced.
The Royal Road was built from Sardis to Susa, with a courier (postal) service.
The Aramaic script was widely used in administration; the Sogdian and Khwarezmian scripts later developed from it.
The Behistun inscription — a trilingual rock inscription of Darius I that names Bactria, Sogdiana, Khwarezm, Parthia and the Saka
Central Asians served in the Achaemenid army: Saka and Bactrians fought in the Greco-Persian Wars (for example at Marathon, 490 BC). The reliefs of the palace at Persepolis show Sogdians, Bactrians and Saka as envoys bringing tribute and gifts.
§3. Alexander the Great’s eastern campaign
Alexander, king of Macedon (336–323 BC), crossed into Asia in 334 BC. The decisive battle was fought in Mesopotamia.
331 BC — the Battle of Gaugamela: Darius III was defeated and the Achaemenid Empire fell
Darius III fled east but in 330 BC was killed by his own courtiers, including Bessus, satrap of Bactria.
Bessus proclaimed himself king and meant to fight on against Alexander. But his allies, Spitamenes among them, handed him over to Alexander.
329–327 BC — Alexander in Central Asia
Alexander took Maracanda (Samarkand) and founded Alexandria Eschate (“Alexandria the Furthest”, today’s Khujand) on the Syr Darya.
Alexander used harsh reprisals against villages and towns, which provoked widespread resistance.
§4. The revolt of Spitamenes
Spitamenes was a Sogdian noble who led popular resistance to Alexander.
329–328 BC — the revolt led by Spitamenes
The rebels besieged the citadel of Maracanda. A Greco-Macedonian force sent to relieve it was wiped out on the Polytimetus (Zarafshan) river — one of Alexander’s worst defeats in Central Asia.
Spitamenes allied with the nomadic Saka and Massagetae and fought a guerrilla war, striking quickly and withdrawing into the steppe.
Alexander split his army into small units, covered the country with a network of forts and punished the population severely.
At the end of 328 BC Spitamenes was killed by his own allies, the nomad nobility, and his head was sent to Alexander.
To win over the local nobility Alexander married Roxana, daughter of the Sogdian noble Oxyartes (327 BC). He then set off for India. Cause and effect: the fierce resistance of Central Asian peoples forced Alexander to move from force to compromise — a policy of alliance with the local elite.
§5. The Seleucids and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom
Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC; his generals (the Diadochi) divided the empire.
312 BC — the Seleucid state was founded; Central Asia became part of it
In the mid-3rd century BC Diodotus, satrap of Bactria, broke away from the Seleucids and founded the independent Greco-Bactrian kingdom. Parthia broke away at about the same time.
Greco-Bactrian kings (Euthydemus, Demetrius and others) seized land as far as northern India.
In the second half of the 2nd century BC the kingdom fell to nomads (the Yuezhi, or Tocharians); later the Kushan state arose in the same region.
§6. Hellenistic culture
Hellenism was the blending of Greek and local eastern cultures.
Coins carried a Greek legend and the king’s portrait; Greek gods took on the features of local deities.
Towns had theatres, gymnasia and colonnaded buildings (the ruins of Ai-Khanum in Afghanistan are well studied); Hellenistic influence can also be seen at ancient sites near Termez.
In sculpture the Greek style merged with local tradition and later influenced Kushan art.
Greek was used in government and trade, but the population kept its own languages, religion (Zoroastrianism) and customs.
Worked example
“Put the events in chronological order: A) the revolt of Spitamenes; B) the founding of the Achaemenid Empire; C) the Battle of Gaugamela; D) the founding of the Seleucid state.”
Achaemenid Empire — 550 BC.
Gaugamela — 331 BC.
Spitamenes’ revolt — 329–328 BC.
Seleucids — 312 BC. With BC dates, the larger number comes earlier.
Answer: B → C → A → D.
Worked example
Source analysis: “The Sogdians besieged the citadel... the Macedonians who came to its relief were surrounded by the river and almost all were killed” (from the Greek historian Arrian). Which event is described?
Sogdiana, a siege and Macedonians — so the event belongs to Alexander’s time in Central Asia, 329–327 BC.
The besieged citadel is Maracanda; the river where the Macedonians died is the Polytimetus (Zarafshan).
The leader of the revolt was Spitamenes.
Answer: Spitamenes’ revolt, the battle on the Polytimetus (329 BC).
Worked example
Cause and effect: “Why did Alexander marry Roxana?”
Cause: Spitamenes’ revolt and fierce local resistance showed that the region could not be held by force alone.
Alexander needed to win over the local nobility.
Marrying the daughter of the Sogdian noble Oxyartes was a sign of that alliance.
Answer: to ally with the local nobility and secure his power in the region.
Check yourself
Who founded the Achaemenid Empire?
Who introduced the system of satrapies?
Fighting which people was Cyrus II killed?
In what year was the Battle of Gaugamela?
Against whom was Spitamenes’ revolt directed?
What is the Polytimetus river called today?
Who founded the Greco-Bactrian kingdom?
Which city stands on the site of Alexandria Eschate?
Common mistakes
Saying Spitamenes fought the Achaemenids (he fought Alexander).
Thinking Alexander introduced the satrapies (Darius I did).
Swapping the Seleucids and Greco-Bactria: the Seleucids came first (312 BC), Greco-Bactria later (mid-3rd century BC).
Confusing Tomyris and Shiraq: Tomyris fought Cyrus II, Shiraq fought Darius I.