The period from the 2nd century BC to the 4th century AD holds a special place in Central Asian history. Several local states — ancient Khwarezm, Dayuan (Davan) and Kangju — rose to prominence, the Great Silk Road linking China with the Mediterranean opened, and the Kushan Empire became one of the most powerful states in the world. At the same time Buddhism spread from India through Central Asia to China and many cultures met. Exams often ask you to match state, region and site, and ask about Chinese sources, Kushan rulers and Silk Road trade.
§1. Ancient Khwarezm
Ancient Khwarezm, on the lower Amu Darya, was one of the oldest states in Central Asia. It had its own script (Khwarezmian, based on Aramaic), coinage, strong fortresses and a complex irrigation network.
Koy-Krylgan-Kala (4th–3rd centuries BC) is a circular building thought to have served as a temple and a place for observing the heavens (an observatory).
Toprak-Kala (1st–4th centuries AD) was the palace of the kings of Khwarezm: huge halls, wall paintings, sculptures and documents in Khwarezmian script were found there.
The fortresses of Khwarezm were studied extensively by an expedition led by the archaeologist S. P. Tolstov.
In Khwarezm land ownership and irrigation were controlled by the state; canals were dug and cleaned by communal labour.
§2. Dayuan, Kangju and the Chinese sources
Dayuan (the Fergana Valley) had, according to Chinese sources, about 70 towns large and small; the people farmed and grew vines, making wine from grapes. Dayuan was famous for its “heavenly horses” (argamaks).
104–101 BC — the Chinese Han Empire campaigned against Dayuan to obtain the “heavenly horses”; the capital was besieged and the Chinese took the horses
Kangju was a state on the middle Syr Darya and in the Tashkent oasis; its people were nomadic herders and settled farmers, and its army was strong. Its influence may have reached Sogdiana and Khwarezm.
Zhang Qian was a Chinese envoy sent west by the Han emperor in the 2nd century BC. After years as a captive of nomads he visited Dayuan, Kangju and the lands of the Yuezhi, and on his return reported on them in detail. His report survives in the “Records of the Grand Historian” by Sima Qian.
Zhang Qian’s journey — the starting point of the opening of the Silk Road
§3. The rise of the Kushan Empire
1st–4th centuries AD; its peak — the reign of Kanishka (2nd century)
In the 2nd century BC the Yuezhi tribes, driven from China’s borders, migrated west, destroyed the Greco-Bactrian kingdom and settled in Bactria. They were divided into five principalities.
In the 1st century AD Kujula Kadphises, chief of the Kushan clan, united them and founded the Kushan Empire.
His successors (Vima Kadphises and others) conquered parts of India and began minting gold coins.
Under Kanishka the empire reached its height, covering southern Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern India; one capital was Purushapura (Peshawar).
At that time the Kushan Empire, together with Rome, China (the Han Empire) and Parthia, was one of the four great powers of the world.
Cause and effect: Kushan power rested on control of the central section of the Silk Road — customs duties and crafts filled the treasury.
§4. Government, economy and decline
Government: the ruler bore titles such as “king of kings” and “son of god”; provinces were run by governors (satraps).
Gold, silver and copper coins were minted — evidence of a developed money economy and trade.
Irrigated farming expanded and new canals were dug; towns (Termez, Dalverzintepa, Kampirtepa) became centres of crafts and trade.
From the 3rd century attacks by Sasanian Iran and internal strife weakened the empire; its western lands passed to the Sasanians and in the 4th century the state finally broke up.
3rd–4th centuries — decline of the Kushan Empire; Sasanian attacks
§5. Religion and culture
Buddhism spread widely under Kanishka’s patronage. Through the Kushans it travelled across Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan to China. Zoroastrianism and local cults survived too; Kushan coins show Greek, Iranian and Indian deities — a sign of religious tolerance.
Buddhist sites near Termez: Fayaztepa (a monastery with a Buddha statue) and Karatepa (cave temples).
Dalverzintepa (Surkhandarya) — ruins of a town and temples where a hoard of gold objects was found.
Khalchayan (Surkhandarya) — a palace with clay sculptures of rulers and warriors.
The Airtam frieze (Termez) — a stone relief of musicians playing instruments.
The Bactrian script (based on the Greek alphabet) was used as the state script.
In art the Gandhara style emerged — a blend of Greek, Indian and local traditions.
§6. The Great Silk Road
A network of trade routes linking China with the Mediterranean from the 2nd century BC. The term “Silk Road” was coined in the 19th century by the German scholar F. von Richthofen.
From the east: silk, porcelain, lacquerware; later paper and tea.
From the west: glass, gold and silver ware, wine and jewellery.
From Central Asia: argamak horses, alfalfa, grapes, precious stones and textiles.
The middlemen were Sogdian merchants; Sogdian became the international trade language along the route.
Significance: along with goods came the exchange of religions (Buddhism, later Christianity and Islam), technologies, art and ideas; towns along the route flourished.
The Great Silk Road — from the 2nd century BC; main middlemen — the Sogdians
Worked example
“Match: 1) Toprak-Kala; 2) Fayaztepa; 3) heavenly horses; 4) Kangju. a) Dayuan; b) the Kushan Empire; c) Khwarezm; d) the Tashkent oasis.”
Toprak-Kala — palace of the kings of Khwarezm: 1–c.
Fayaztepa — a Kushan-era Buddhist monastery: 2–b.
Heavenly horses — Dayuan: 3–a.
Kangju — the middle Syr Darya and Tashkent oasis: 4–d.
Answer: 1–c, 2–b, 3–a, 4–d.
Worked example
Source analysis: “The people of this country are settled; they plough the fields and grow rice and wheat, and make wine from grapes. There are many fine horses here; the horses sweat blood...” (from Zhang Qian’s report, “Records of the Grand Historian”). Which state is meant?
The source is the report of the Chinese envoy Zhang Qian, so the 2nd century BC.
Settled farming, vine-growing and above all famous horses point to Dayuan.
The “blood-sweating” horses are the “heavenly horses” for which China later went to war.
Answer: Dayuan (the Fergana Valley).
Worked example
Chronology and causation: “Order: Kanishka’s reign; Zhang Qian’s journey; China’s campaign against Dayuan; the decline of the Kushans.”
Zhang Qian’s journey — 2nd century BC (before the campaign; his report made China interested in the horses).