At the end of the 7th and beginning of the 8th century Transoxiana (Movarounnahr) became part of the Arab Caliphate. This changed life in the region profoundly: Islam, the Arabic language and script and a new tax system spread, and Central Asia later became one of the greatest centres of learning in Islamic civilisation. The topic is the key to the eras that followed — the Samanids and the “Eastern Renaissance”. Exams ask about the stages of conquest, the dates and leaders of revolts, and types of tax.
§1. The rise of the Arab Caliphate
Around the 610s Islam emerged in Arabia.
622 — the Hijra: the Prophet Muhammad moved from Mecca to Medina; the Hijri calendar is counted from this year
After the Prophet’s death (632) the state was ruled by caliphs. Under the first four caliphs Iran, Syria and Egypt were conquered and the Sasanian Empire fell.
The Umayyad dynasty (661–750) ruled from Damascus. The conquest of Transoxiana falls mainly in this period.
The Abbasid dynasty (from 750) ruled from Baghdad. It came to power with the help of the movement led by Abu Muslim that began in Khurasan.
The Caliphate expanded thanks to a strong army united by the new faith and the exhaustion of neighbouring Byzantium and Iran after long wars.
§2. Transoxiana on the eve of the Arab conquest
“Movarounnahr” is Arabic for “the land beyond the river” — the region between the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya.
The region was split into several independent principalities: Sogdiana (Samarkand, Panjikent), Bukhara, Khwarezm, Chach, Fergana and Tokharistan.
Rulers had different titles: in Samarkand the ikhshid, in Bukhara the Bukhar-khudat, in Khwarezm the Khwarezmshah.
The principalities were rivals and could not raise a common army; this was the main reason the conquest was easier.
The economy was developed: farming, crafts and Silk Road trade (the Sogdians were famous merchants).
§3. The conquest of Transoxiana
The first raids began in the mid-7th century; in the 670s the Arabs attacked Bukhara.
705–715 — Qutayba ibn Muslim, governor of Khurasan, conquered Transoxiana
Paykend (706), Bukhara (709), Samarkand and Khwarezm (712), then campaigns against Chach and Fergana.
Qutayba built mosques in conquered cities, stationed Arab garrisons and extracted heavy tribute.
Devashtich, ruler in Sogdiana, resisted; besieged in a fortress on Mount Mug, he was captured and executed in 722. The Sogdian documents found on Mount Mug in the 20th century are an important source for the period.
751 — the Battle of Talas: the Arabs defeated a Chinese (Tang) army
After Talas, Chinese claims to Central Asia ended; according to tradition, prisoners brought the secret of paper-making to Samarkand, from where it spread west.
§4. Revolts against the Caliphate
Causes: heavy taxes, humiliation of the local population, loss of land and power by the nobility, and abuses by Arab officials.
Abu Muslim’s movement (747–750) began in Khurasan; it overthrew the Umayyads and brought the Abbasids to power. Abu Muslim himself was later killed on the caliph’s orders (755).
769–783 — the revolt of Muqanna
Muqanna’s followers were called “the men in white”. The centre was the Kashkadarya and Zarafshan oases; Turks also helped the rebels. Muqanna died in the besieged fortress of Sanam.
806–810 — the revolt of Rafi ibn Layth
Rafi ibn Layth’s revolt began in Samarkand and spread to Fergana, Chach, Bukhara and Khwarezm. The local descendants of Saman-khudat helped the caliph suppress it.
Consequence: although the revolts were crushed, the Caliphate had to rely on the local nobility. The Samanids were appointed governors of Samarkand, Fergana, Chach and Herat — opening the way to independent local dynasties.
§5. Social and economic change
Land was considered the caliph’s property; peasants paid taxes to the state.
Types of tax: kharaj — land tax (a share of the harvest); jizya — poll tax on non-Muslims; zakat — religious tax on Muslims (a share of property).
Converts to Islam were supposed to be freed from jizya, but some governors kept collecting it from Muslims to protect their revenue — one cause of discontent.
Crafts and trade continued; Transoxiana became one of the richest provinces of the Caliphate.
§6. Cultural change
Islam gradually spread widely; mosques and later madrasas were built. The influence of Zoroastrianism, Buddhism and Christianity declined.
Arabic became the language of government and learning, and the Arabic script was adopted. The Sogdian and Khwarezmian scripts gradually fell out of use.
Scholars from Central Asia contributed to learning in Baghdad (Khwarizmi, Farghani) — the groundwork of the later “Eastern Renaissance”.
The Arab historian al-Tabari and Narshakhi’s “History of Bukhara” are the main written sources on the conquest.
Worked example
“Put in chronological order: the revolt of Rafi ibn Layth; the execution of Devashtich; the revolt of Muqanna; the Battle of Talas.”
Devashtich — 722.
Battle of Talas — 751.
Muqanna — 769–783.
Rafi ibn Layth — 806–810.
Answer: Devashtich → Talas → Muqanna → Rafi ibn Layth.
Worked example
Source analysis: “He came to Bukhara and took the city many times, and each time the people turned away from the faith; at last he built a mosque in the city and gave half of the inhabitants’ houses to the Arabs” (Narshakhi, “History of Bukhara”). Who is meant, and when?
Taking Bukhara and building a mosque — the Arab conquest of the early 8th century.
The Arab governor who finally subdued Bukhara in 709 was Qutayba ibn Muslim.
The source shows the conquerors’ harsh policy and the slow spread of Islam.
Answer: Qutayba ibn Muslim, early 8th century (705–715).
Worked example
Cause and effect: “Why did the Caliphate appoint the Samanids as governors in the early 9th century?”
The revolts of Muqanna and Rafi ibn Layth showed the Caliphate could not rule by force alone.
The descendants of Saman-khudat had helped the caliph crush Rafi ibn Layth’s revolt.
Relying on nobles whom local people trusted suited the Caliphate.
Answer: to govern the region through the local nobility after the revolts.
Check yourself
Who conquered Transoxiana?
In what year was the Battle of Talas?
What were Muqanna’s followers called?
What kind of tax was kharaj?
Which city was the Abbasid capital?
Where did Devashtich hold out?
In what years was Rafi ibn Layth’s revolt?
What title did the rulers of Samarkand hold?
Common mistakes
Swapping the dates of the Muqanna and Rafi ibn Layth revolts (Muqanna came first).
Calling Qutayba an Abbasid general (he served the Umayyads).
Confusing jizya and kharaj: kharaj is a land tax, jizya a poll tax.
Thinking the Arabs lost at Talas (they defeated the Chinese army).
Taking Transoxiana to mean the lands south of the Amu Darya.
Saying Abu Muslim’s movement brought the Umayyads to power: in fact it overthrew them and brought in the Abbasids.